Articles

The Relationship Between the Communication Attitudes of Preschool Children Who Stutter and Their Parents’ Cognitive, Emotional, and Behavioral Responses


AUTHOR
Aynur Senocak, Seçil Aydın Oral
INFORMATION
2026, Vol. 11, Issue 1 / pp. 1-14

e-ISSN
2508-5948
p-ISSN

ABSTRACT

Purpose The aim of this study is to evaluate the link between parents' reactions to the stuttering of their children and the communication attitudes of the latter regarding their speech problem. Methods The study used a correlational quantitative research design involving 40 children who stutter (between the ages of 36-71 months), along with their mothers and fathers. Data was gathered using the KiddyCAT-TR (children's communication attitudes) and the RSDS (parents' reactions on cognitive, behavioral, and emotional subscales). Results Mothers reported having higher levels of reactions, scores on all subscales, and higher severity perception of their children's stuttering compared to fathers (p < .01). Positive correlation coefficients were observed between the children's negative communication attitudes and total reactions of their mothers (r = .493, p = .001) and fathers (r = .465, p = .003). It was found that mothers tend to react cognitively-emotionally while fathers reacted behaviorally-emotionally. Conclusions Mothers exhibited higher intensity and severity perception compared to fathers. An inverse link was found between the children's negative communication attitudes and parental reactions, especially on the emotional subscale. The finding emphasizes the importance of stuttering as a family affair and calls for family assessment and intervention.

REFERENCES


  1. Guitar B. Stuttering: An integrated approach to its nature and treatment. 4th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2014.
  2. Yaruss JS, Quesal RW. Stuttering and the international classification of functioning, disability, and health (ICF): An update. J Commun Disord. 2004;37(1):35-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9924(03)00052-2 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  3. Mansson, H. Childhood stuttering: Incidence and development. J Fluen Disord. 2000;25(1):47-57. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0094-730X(99)00023-6 [Crossref]
  4. Yairi E, Ambrose N. Epidemiology of stuttering: 21st century advances. J Fluen Disord. 2013;38(2):66-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfludis.2012.11.002 [Crossref] [Pubmed] [ETC]
  5. Smith A, Weber C. How stuttering develops: The multifactorial dynamic pathways theory. J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2017;60(9):2483-505. https://doi.org/10.1044/2017_JSLHR-S-16-0343 [Crossref] [Pubmed] [ETC]
  6. Guttormsen LS, Yaruss JS, Næss KAB. Parents' perceptions of the overall impact of stuttering on young children. Am J Speech Lang Pathol. 2021;30(5):2130-42. https://doi.org/10.1044/2021_AJSLP-20-00113 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  7. McAllister J. Behavioural, emotional, and social development of children who stutter. J Fluency Disord. 2016;50: 23-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfludis.2016.09.003 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  8. Kakuta K, Kawasaki A. Executive function in preschool children who stutter: A behavioral assessment study. Sci Rep. 2025;15(1):16159. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-00981-9 [Crossref] [Pubmed] [ETC]
  9. Langevin M, Packman A, Onslow M. Peer responses to stuttering in the preschool setting. Am J Speech Lang Pathol. 2009;18(3):264-76. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2009/07-0087) [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  10. Johnson G, Onslow M, Horton S, Kefalianos E. Psychosocial features of stuttering for school-age children: A systematic review. Int J Lang Commun Disord. 2023;58(5):1829-45. https://doi.org/10.1111/1460-6984.12887 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  11. Iverach L, Rapee RM. Social anxiety disorder and stuttering: Current status and future directions. J Fluency Disord. 2014;40:69-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfludis.2013.08.003 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  12. Byrd C, Hampton E, McGill M, Gkalitsiou Z. Participation in camp dream. speak. live: Affective and cognitive outcomes for children who stutter. J Speech Pathol Ther. 2016;1(116): 2. https://doi.org/10.4172/2472-5005.1000116 [Crossref]
  13. Beilby J. Psychosocial impact of living with a stuttering disorder: Knowing is not enough. Semin Speech Lang. 2014;35(2):132-43. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0034-1371756 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  14. Hartman I, Klop D, Swartz L. Parental communication dynamics with children who stutter: A scoping review. Int J Lang Commun Disord. 2025;60(1):e13129. https://doi.org/10.1111/1460-6984.13129 [Crossref] [Pubmed] [ETC]
  15. Ong Y, Ghazali N, Singh S, Unicomb R, Chu S. Experiences of fluent siblings living with children who stutter in Malaysia: A qualitative study. Int J Lang Commun Disord. 2025;60(3): e70034. https://doi.org/10.1111/1460-6984.70034 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  16. Rocha M, Yaruss JS, Rato JR. Stuttering impact: A shared perception for parents and children? Folia Phoniatr Logop. 2020;72(6):478-86. https://doi.org/10.1159/000504221 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  17. Salehi S, Daniels D. Parents recounting their journey with stuttering: A preliminary exploration of experiences and adaptation. J Fluency Disord. 2025;84:106122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfludis.2025.106122 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  18. Einarsdóttir J, Ingham RJ. Have disfluency-type measures contributed to the understanding and treatment of developmental stuttering? Am J Speech ang Pathol. 2009;18(4):260-73. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2005/026) [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  19. Langevin M, Packman A, Onslow M. Parent perceptions of the impact of stuttering on their preschoolers and themselves. J Commun Disord. 2010;43(5):407-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2010.05.003 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  20. Plexico LW, Burrus E. Coping with a child who stutters: A phenomenological analysis. J Fluency Disord. 2012;37(4): 275-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfludis.2012.06.002 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  21. Berquez A, Kelman E. Methods in stuttering therapy for desensitizing parents of children who stutter. Am J Speech Lang Pathol. 2018;27(3S):1124-38. https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_AJSLP-ODC11-17-0183 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  22. Humeniuk E, Tarkowski Z, Góral-Półrola J. Emotional intelligence of parents and their reaction to a child's speech disfluency. Family Upbringing. 2022;28(3):29-43. https://doi.org/10.61905/wwr/170323 [Crossref]
  23. Millard SK, Davis S. The Palin parent rating scales: Parents' perspectives of childhood stuttering and its impact. J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2016;59(5):950-63. https://doi.org/10.1044/2016_JSLHR-S-14-0137 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  24. Humeniuk E, Tarkowski Z. Parents' reactions to children's stuttering and style of coping with stress. J Fluency Disord. 2016;49:51-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfludis.2016.08.002 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  25. Yaşar Ö, Özdemir Ş. How parental reactions differ toward early stuttering: A Turkish validation study of the responses to speech disfluency scale. Arch Health Sci Res. 2023;10(2):77-80. https://doi.org/10.5152/ArcHealthSciRes.2022.22093 [Crossref]
  26. Hughes S, Junuzovic-Zunic L, Mostafa E, Weidner M, Özdemir RS, Daniels DE, Göksu A, Konrot A, St Louis KO. Mothers' and fathers' attitudes toward stuttering in the Middle East compared to Europe and North America. Int J Lang Commun Disord. 2024;59(1):354-68. https://doi.org/10.1111/1460-6984.12952 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  27. Safwat RF, Sheikhany A. Parental attitudes and knowledge of stuttering. Egypt J Otolaryngol. 2014;30(2):151-6. https://doi.org/10.4103/1012-5574.133220 [Crossref]
  28. Yaruss JS, LaSalle LR, Conture EG. Evaluating treatment outcomes for children who stutter: Direct treatment, family-focused treatment, and comprehensive treatment. J Commun Disord. 2002;35(4):383-405.
  29. Vanryckeghem M, Brutten G, Hernández L. A comparative investigation of the speech-associated attitude of preschool and kindergarten children who do and do not stutter. J Fluency Disord. 2005;30(4):307-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfludis.2005.09.003 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  30. Clark CE, Conture EG, Frankel CB, Walden TA. Communicative and psychological dimensions of the KiddyCAT. J Commun Disord. 2012;45(3):223-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2012.01.002 [Crossref] [Pubmed] [ETC]
  31. Boey RA, Van de Heyning PH, Wuyts FL, Heylen L, Stoop R, De Bodt MS. Awareness and reactions of young stuttering children aged 2-7 years toward their speech disfluency. J Commun Disord. 2009;42(5):334-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2009.03.002 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  32. Winters KL, Byrd CT. Investigating perspective taking and caregiver-proxy-child communication attitude agreement in early childhood stuttering. PLOS ONE. 2026; 21(2):e0339706. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0339706 [Crossref] [Pubmed] [ETC]
  33. Novšak-Brce J, Vanryckeghem M. Communication attitude of Slovenian preschool children who do and do not stutter. J Speech Pathol Ther. 2017;2:1-5. https://doi.org/10.4172/2472-5005.1000124 [Crossref]
  34. Walsh B, Usler E, Bostian A, Mohan R, Gerwin KL, Brown B, Weber C, Smith A. What are predictors for persistence in childhood stuttering? Semin Speech Lang. 2018;39(4):299-312. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1667159 [Crossref] [Pubmed] [ETC]
  35. Briley PM, O'Brien K, Ellis C. Behavioral, emotional, and social well-being in children who stutter: Evidence from the national health interview survey. J Dev Phys Disabil. 2019;31:39-53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-018-9625-x [Crossref]
  36. Tumanova V, Zebrowski PM. Parent-child interactions and stuttering. In: Guitar B, McCauley R, editors. Treatment of stuttering: Established and emerging interventions. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2019. pp. 151-77.
  37. Winters KL, Byrd CT. Caregiver predictions of their 3-to 6-year-old child who stutters' communication attitude. J Speech Lang Hear Res. 2024;67(7):2086-105. https://doi.org/10.1044/2024_JSLHR-23-00662 [Crossref] [Pubmed] [ETC]
  38. Millard SK, Zebrowski P, Kelman E. Palin parent-child interaction therapy: The bigger picture. Am J Speech Lang Pathol. 2018;27(3S):1211-23. https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_AJSLP-ODC11-17-0199 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  39. Eshghizadeh M, Basirimoghadam M, Baloochi Beydokhti T, Banafshe E, Najafi, S. Comparison of parenting style in mothers of children with and without stuttering: A case-control study. J of Res Health. 2014;4(1):623-9.
  40. Salehpoor A, Latifi Z, Tohidast SA. Evaluating parents' reactions to children's stuttering using a Persian version of the Reaction to Speech Disfluency Scale. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2020;134:110076. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2020.110076 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  41. Vanryckeghem M, Brutten GJ. Psychosocial aspects of stuttering in children. In: Curlee RF, Siegel GM, editors. Nature and treatment of stuttering: New directions. Allyn & Bacon; 2007. pp. 157-79.
  42. Aydın Oral S, Konrot A, Gerçek E, Vanryckeghem M. Preliminary normative data for the Turkish form of the KiddyCAT. Turkiye Klinikleri J Health Sci. 2022;7(1): 78-85. https://doi.org/10.5336/healthsci.2021-82552 [Crossref]
  43. Sawyer J, Yairi E. The effect of sample size on the assessment of stuttering severity. Am J Speech Lang Pathol. 2006;15(1):36-44. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2006/005) [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  44. Koo TK, Li MY. A guideline of selecting and reporting intraclass correlation coefficients for reliability research. J Chiropr Med. 2016;15(2):155-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcm.2016.02.012 [Crossref] [Pubmed] [ETC]
  45. Tabachnick, BG, Fidell, LS. Using multivariate statistics. 5th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. 2007.
  46. Barzegar Bafrooei E, Farazi M, Maroufizadeh S, Darouie A. Clinical and sociodemographic predictors of parental perceptions and confidence in managing child stuttering. Indian J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2024;76(6):5434-42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12070-024-04998-w [Crossref] [Pubmed] [ETC]
  47. Mutlu Aİ, Uçal İ, Bacık Tırank Ş, Cengiz D. Turkish version of the stuttering severity instrument-version 4 (SSI-4). H.Ü. Sağlık Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi. 2025;12(3):850-66. https://doi.org/10.21020/husbfd.1609259 [Crossref]
  48. Cangi ME, Aydin N, Millard SK. Turkish adaptation of the palin parent rating scales: A validity and reliability assessment. J Fluency Disord. 2025;84:106118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfludis.2025.106118 [Crossref] [Pubmed]
  49. Yırtık HN, Cankuvvet N. Experiences and therapy expectations of parents of preschool children who stutter. J Fluency Disord. 2025;84:106117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfludis.2025.106117 [Crossref] [Pubmed]